POF Measurement: Transmission Power

Power measurement is one of the most important testing procedures because it shows how effectively a fiber optic communication system is working, and whether it is meeting its minimum specifications.

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Optical power is measured either using linear units of watts (W), milliwatts (mW), microwatts (μW), or nanowatts (nW), or the absolute logarithmic unit, decibel-milliwatts (dBm). Power losses and gains are measured using the relative logarithmic unit, decibels (dB).

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The formulas for converting between mW and dBm are as follows.

Based on these, positive dBm values indicate the measured power is greater than the reference value of 1 mW, while negative values are less than 1 mW. Further manipulation of these equations will show that a 50% reduction in absolute power is corresponds to a 3 dB loss.

Typical power levels for POF transmission lines are between -2 dBm (0.63 mW) and -26 dBm (0.0025 mW). Test devices, which consist of a laser or LED transmitter and a photodiode receiver, can measure power levels with accuracy up to 0.01 dB.

Power Testing Methods

Single-ended cable assembly testing: FOTP-171

Trans Of Fours

FOTP-171 is a test that was developed for testing the fiber and one connector of a connectorized POF cable.

A 0 dB reference is created by connecting the power meter to the output of the reference launch cable. It is then used to connect a power source to the cable under test, which is then connected to a power meter. This causes the insertion loss of the cable under test, plus the connector mating it and the reference cable, to be measured.

Double-ended cable assembly testing: OFSTP-14

Similarly, it is possible to perform a double-ended test for cable assemblies, OFSTP-14, which measures the combined loss of the connectors on both ends and the fiber itself. Between one and three reference cables are used for this test, for launch (from the power source) and receive (to the power meter), with the cable under test is connected between them. Each of these variations involves a different method of setting the 0 dB reference.

Method A: One Reference Cable (Launch)

0 dB reference is set by measuring output of launch cable directly, omitting all connector loss from measurements.

When the cable under test is measured, the insertion loss of the complete assembly is included.

Method B: Two Cables (Launch and Receive)

0 dB reference is set by measuring the output of the launch cable through the receive cable, so the insertion loss of one connector is included.

When the cable under test is measured, the insertion loss of the complete assembly is included, minus the loss of one of the mated connectors.

Method C: Three Cables (Launch, Receive, and “Golden” Reference Cable)

0 dB reference is set by measuring the output of the launch cable through the receive cable and a “golden” reference cable, so the insertion loss of two mated connectors and the fiber in the third cable are included.

When the cable under test is measured, the insertion loss of the complete assembly is included, minus the loss of the two mated connectors that were included in the reference.

References

(2014) The FOA Reference For Fiber Optics – Testing Fiber Optic Patchcords and Cables [Online]. Available: http://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/testing/test/FOTP-171.html

(2014) The FOA Reference For Fiber Optics – Testing the Installed Fiber Optic Cable Plant [Online]. Available: http://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/testing/test/OFSTP-14.html

Fiber Optic Technician’s Manual, 3rd edition, Clifton Park, NY, 2005.

The surge of violence against transgender people in the United States has passed a grim milestone. In just seven months, the number of transgender people suspected of being murdered in 2020 has surpassed the total for all of 2019.

At least 28 transgender people have been murdered, or their death is suspicious, so far this year compared to 26 last year. According to data collected by the National Center for Transgender Equality, 23 of the victims were transgender women, four were transgender men and one was non-binary. The epidemic of violence is particularly pronounced for Black and Latina trans women.

“Transgender people – and particularly Black and Latina transgender women – are marginalized, stigmatized and criminalized in our country. They face violence every day, and they fear turning to the police for help,” said Rodrigo Heng-Lehtinen, deputy executive director for the National Center for Transgender Equality.

To stem the violence targeting transgender people requires increased access to safe, affordable housing, policies that protect transgender people from discrimination and increase economic opportunity, and improved police training.

“This crisis demands change to improve policing and hold the police departments accountable for their failure to protect transgender people. But reforms must go further to disrupt the systemic racism and transphobia that push so many transgender people of color into vulnerable situations, shut out of stable housing, secure jobs and loving homes. No one should be forced to live in fear,” Heng-Lehtinen said.

Aja Raquell Rhone-Spears, 33, was stabbed to death in Portland, Oregon while attending a vigil for murder victim Tyrell Penney, People magazine reports.

Rhone-Spears became at least the 28th transgender person murdered this year.

“Another Black transgender woman is dead, killed in an act of violence while attending a vigil for a murder victim,” Heng-Lehtinen said. “We must remember the names of the victims of these violent crimes and demand justice.”

Trans Of Past And Future

In NCTE’s U.S. Transgender Survey, which included more than 28,000 respondents, nearly half (47%) of all Black respondents reported being denied equal treatment, verbally harassed, and/or physically attacked in the previous year because of being transgender. Nearly one in ten (9%) were physically attacked in the past year because of being transgender. Black transgender women (14%) were more likely to be physically attacked in the previous year because of being transgender, compared to Black non-binary people (8%) and transgender men (7%).

Also in NCTE’s U.S. Transgender Survey, 30% of all Latino respondents reported being denied equal treatment, verbally harassed, and/or physically attacked in the previous year because of being transgender. Nearly one in ten (9%) were physically attacked in the previous year because of being transgender. Latina transgender women (12%) and non-binary people (10%) were more likely to be physically attacked in the past year because of being transgender, compared to Latino transgender men (7%).

Nearly 57% of all respondents said that they were afraid to go to the police when they needed help. And 58% of transgender people who interacted with law enforcement reported experiences of harassment, abuse or other mistreatment. More than 60% reported being physically assaulted and 64% reporting being sexually assaulted.

In 2019, NCTE published “Failing To Protect & Serve,” an audit of policies of the 25 largest police departments in the country. The biggest finding was that police departments in the United States are failing to protect transgender people.

Names of those murdered, or suspected of being murdered, compiled by NCTE:

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• Dustin Parker, McAlester, OK
• Alexa Neulisa Luciano Ruiz, Toa Baja, Puerto Rico
• Yampi Méndez Arocho, Moca, Puerto Rico
• Monica Diamond, Charlotte, NC
• Lexi, New York, NY
• Johanna Metzger, Baltimore, MD
• Penélope Díaz Ramírez, Bayamon, Puerto Rico
• Layla Pelaez Sánchez, Puerto Rico
• Serena Angelique Velázquez Ramos, Puerto Rico
• Nina Pop, Sikeston, MO
• Helle Jae O’Regan, San Antonio, TX
• Tony McDade, Tallahassee, FL
• Dominique 'Rem'mie' Fells, Philadelphia, PA
• Riah Milton, Liberty Township, OH
• Jayne Thompson, Mesa County, CO
• Selena Reyes Hernandez, Chicago, IL
• Brayla Stone, Sherwood, AR
• Merci Mack, Dallas, TX
• Shaki Peters, Amite City, LA
• Bree “Nuk” Black, Pompano Beach, FL
• Summer Taylor, Seattle, WA
• Draya McCarty, Baton Rouge, LA
• Tatiana Hall, Philadelphia, PA
• Marilyn Cazares, Brawley, CA
• Tiffany Harris, The Bronx, NY
• Queasha D. Hardy, Baton Rouge, LA
• Brian 'Egypt' Powers, Akron, OH
• Aja Raquell Rhone-Spears, Portland, OR